Diagnostics:

• During the production process of sperms, the genetic material undergoes condensation wherein the numerous DNA strands occupy very little space in the sperm’s head. As per the theory, this process prevents any damage to the DNA, however, it is not just a damage-proof process. There are several factors that increase the chances of damage to the sperm. Firstly, in the nucleus of the sperm, a very large amount of DNA tends to compact tightly which leaves it open to physical damage like the breaking of DNA strands. Moreover, other factors like the absence of the protein that facilitates the condensing of the genetic material, etc make the DNA strands more susceptible to external forces. 

Apoptosis is a self-cleansing process that encompasses programmed cell death. In other words, it eliminates the infected or damaged cells from the body. It is a quintessential process for the growth and general health of the organism. A specific protein named ‘Fas’ allows the body to identify the cells that need to be eliminated from the body and it is this protein that induces apoptosis in the body. Interestingly, if the body has the mechanism to identify damaged cells then how come damaged Sperm cells make their way to the semen? Well, this happens due to what is known as Abortive apoptosis. The process of apoptosis gets interrupted along the way and the damaged sperm cells earmarked with Fas manage to escape.

• Oxidative stress refers to the damage caused to the DNA and other molecules in the cell by outside forces including free radicals, also known as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Our body usually produces compounds known as ‘antioxidants’ to prevent any damage from these free radicals. Notably, semen itself contains large quantities of antioxidants to prevent damage to the sperms from oxidative stress. 

However, if the quantity of the free radicals grows exponentially or is left unchecked, then this disequilibrium in the number of free radicals and antioxidants causes oxidative stress. It is believed to be one of the major causes of sperm DNA fragmentation in males.

There are various other factors that increase the chances of sperm DNA fragmentation. These include parental age, smoking, Illness, infection, cancer treatment, exposure to radiation or toxins, etc. 

• Parental Age: With the increasing age, the cells are unable to repair the damaged DNA which, in return, results in the production and storage of sperms with the increased DNA damage. Also with age, the number of cells that are essential for the production of the sperms in the testicles also decreases which could also result in the damage of the DNA. The other factor could be that mitochondria become less effective with age.  The males of age 30 or above have high chances of getting DNA fragmentation (35.6%) whereas men with the age above 50 years are more prone to damaged Sperm DNA (47.7%). 
• Illness or Infection: With illnesses such as Cancer, STSs, influenza, etc the body is more prone to oxidative stress and as a result, it is more susceptible to sperm DNA fragmentation. 
• Smoking: Exposure to harmful chemicals like nicotine and cadmium, resulting from cigarette smoking, causes DNA fragmentation in the sperm cells of males. Also, cigarette smokers are more prone to experience oxidative stress. In one of the studies, researchers deduced that smokers have a higher incidence of damaged DNA condensation during spermatogenesis. 
• Cancer Treatment: Not only does cancer impact fertility but also cancer treatment, due to exposure to radiation during chemotherapy. Although chemotherapy is used to identify and destroy the fast-dividing cancer cells, it also affects the other cells as the treatment is administered through the bloodstream.